中国文化与科学的历史演变？英文双语对照

对任何一个民族文化的了解，都要建立在对其历史的梳理之上，具体到中国文化，我们应该首先对中国思想文化发展的历程有一个总体的了解，这是我们正确认识中国文化的基础。

从历史梳理的角度对中国文化史予以概括，这是我们总结中国文化基本精神的前提。

中国文化早期的源头以《易经》为代表，儒家也有“《易》为五经之首”的说法。据记载，伏羲在7000多年之前就创造了《易》。实际上，《易经》代表了中国先哲对宇宙和人生的理解。其中，《易经》中体现的变易思想、忧患精神、人与世界一体的体认等，都对后世中国的思想界产生了重大影响。

尧舜禹时期的禅让，实际上是中国文化中重视德性和自觉的集中体现。在如何治理国家的问题上，中国文化给出的表率就是建立在道德和觉悟的基础上实行的“禅让”，这种传统深刻影响了中国的政治和社会，在中国文化的语境中，在讨论政治理想时，总是会把尧舜禹时期作为理想的代表。但是，建立在道德和觉悟基础上的人治，有着自身严重的局限，对于此，中国传统政治一直缺少足够的反思。

商周之际的时代变革对中国文化发展产生了重要影响。据《礼记》文献记载，中国的商代非常注重鬼神，社会事务的合法性都来自于鬼神意旨。据历史记载，很多看到商代问题的人，都尽力奉劝纣王改弦更张，可是纣王以“天命在我”的姿态，我行我素，最终被周取代。这种情况下，周代就面临着如何解释天命转移的问题。如果天命选择的是商，那么，周取代商就不具有合法性。这种情况下，周代的统治者提出了“敬天保民”的思想。认为，天命确实存在，但是天命选择谁管理国家，要看这个人是否领悟天命，而领悟天命的表现就是德政，就是爱民。这就是《尚书》上所讲的“天视自我民视，天听自我民听”。这是中国思想史的重大变革，自此后，中国思想文化没有走向神学，而是走向对人的重视，这与西方思想史有着重大分野。

到了东周时期，历史上称为春秋和战国，中央控制力明显弱化，诸侯国开始出现异心，“问鼎”这个词就出现在这个时期。尽管诸侯国还没有能够取代周王朝，但是各种称王争霸的战乱，可谓此起彼伏。在这种情况下，如何实现政治稳定和社会一统，就成了当时面临重大时代问题。再加上中央政权控制的弱化，也为各种思想的出现提供了较好的外部环境，于是，百家争鸣应运而生。就其实质而言，所谓百家争鸣，不过是不同的思想家对乱世中国社会的回应和对病态社会开出的不同药方。儒家的重点在世间，尝试就如何重建和谐的世间秩序为儒家一直思考的中心问题。道家则关注到了宇宙和人生背后的规则——道的问题，就道和人的关系问题作出了深刻的解读。法家则是对如何有效的对人进行管控和激励作了自己的思考。面对春秋战国的乱世，兵家则对战争问题作了独到研究。这些研究，一方面呈现出了中国文化百花齐放的局面，同时，在时代格局的演变中，每一种学说都在大浪淘沙的时代变局中接受检验。

在战国争雄的乱世中，以强调激励人的欲望为主要特征的法家思想成为秦代统一中国的利器。一利一弊，当国家统一之后，法家思想的局限暴露无遗。诚然，法家的刑和赏对于激发人们的积极性和统一中国起了重要作用，但是，对人性贪欲的利用是一个双刃剑。任何一个社会真正的长治久安，不仅需要一套好的制度，更需要人心的净化，需要人们心灵的安顿，对于此，法家的弊端在实践的过程中逐渐暴露。秦王朝统一后，本应该好好的与民休息，通过制度建设探索维护国家稳定的架构，同时通过教化心灵，实现人们心灵的安顿和和谐。可惜，统治者只是将个人的贪欲凌驾于国家之上，不懂得爱惜民力，更不懂得仁爱天下，最终在秦朝二世主政不久，一场农民起义的大火，燃烧了整个秦王朝的天空。历史证明，一个只讲功利，不懂得启发人心之中善良与真诚的文化和社会，一定不会长久。

汉高祖刘邦平定天下后，认真反思历史，取消了秦代的严酷刑法，主张休养生息，给社会一个休养和生长的时间。汉代的这种政策，与对秦代的反思息息相关。经历了惠帝、文帝、景帝时期的发展，到了武帝的时候，整个汉代的国力已经今非昔比。这个时候，汉代的政治、文化、外交等等，都需要随之作一个调整。表现在文化层面，经过董仲舒等人的努力，儒家的文化终于成为统治者认可和推崇的文化。儒家能够成为中国传统社会的正统，表象上看是统治者的选择和当时儒家知识分子的努力，实际上与当时的政治、社会的需要和儒家文化内在的精神相关。儒家主张的那种仁爱、那种对秩序的尊重、那种对人性之善的启迪和教化，对于维系社会的长治久安具有重要价值，可以说，儒家对于世间秩序的思考，经历了秦汉之际的社会震荡之后，终于得到了社会的认可。

汉代末期，儒家的思想开始僵化，汉章帝时期主持的“白虎观”会议，将官方对儒家的解释神圣化，使之成为唯一合法和认可的标准，这实际上是扼杀了文化的活力。加上汉末之后的政治动乱，文化的价值开始混乱。统治者的行为，与其倡导的价值产生背离，这种情况下，人们不可能从内心深处认同统治者标榜的文化，这就给当时的社会产生重要影响。一方面，受儒家文化教育的知识分子在内心深处接受和认同儒家的文化观念与价值系统，但现实中统治者的行为恰恰有悖于儒家的价值观，这就导致了当时文化上的悖乱现象：很多知识分子，一方面放浪形骸，多做违背世俗的行为；另一方面心灵深处深受儒家文化的影响，在灵魂深处认同这套价值。竹林七贤的阮籍等，都存在这个问题。魏晋南北朝的时候，政治纷乱，各民族融和，也为各种文化的融合提供了某种适宜的土壤。儒家、道家、佛家等文化，互相激荡、阐释和互融，为中国文化的进一步发展提供了基础。

隋唐时期，中国政治统一，在魏晋文化融合的基础上，文化上也呈现出海纳百川的局面，各种文化气象万千。唐代的统治者对儒家、道家、佛家都报以尊敬的态度，这对文化的发展起到了很好的推进作用。在这一时期，佛学开始出现飞跃的发展，各种宗派因机设教，异彩纷呈，创造了佛学繁荣发展的局面。针对佛学带来的挑战，儒学在理论框架、传承体系等方面，也要作出自己的解释体系，韩愈的“道统”说，就是这种背景的产物。

到了宋代，中国的知识分子在经历了几百年文化的融合之后，开始显现出勃勃的创造力，理学和心学的出现就是很好的证明。理学以朱熹为集大成，心学以陆九渊为代表，二者看似有区别，实际上都代表了儒学和佛学互融之后的文化景象。应该说，儒学发展到理学和心学阶段，呈现出一个新的高峰，无论是理论体系，还是思考的深度，都是里程碑式的变化。

随着中国传统社会的黄昏到来，有清一代，中国政治走向保守，中国的文化也逐渐失去了生机勃勃的活力，开始逐渐出现走向僵化和琐碎，金石、考据等成了清代文化的特点。除了戴震等少数的思想家有批判精神外，更多的人不过是考据者的角色，缺少思想的原创、批判和反思精神。而在这一时期，西方的社会已经实现了从中世纪到近代转型，政治上的民主政治，极大的激发了人们的活力和创造力，经济上的市场经济，大大的促进了生产力的发展，文化的多元共生，为社会的发展也提供了多种反思和反省的土壤。在这样的世界大格局中之下，中国的国运日渐衰微，一个夕阳西下的王朝，必然要经历一个苦难与挣扎的再生过程。在苦难面前，一个民族如何回应和认知时代的潮流，如何在苦难面前反思自己的问题，决定了这个民族发展的未来。

在新旧时代转换的挣扎中，中国的一些知识分子，既由于世界大势的压迫，也源自挽救中国危亡的急迫，带着家国天下的赤诚，以各自的学科背景和视野来审视中国面临的问题，尝试就如何解决中国的困境提出自己的看法，形成了中国历史上又一次的“百家争鸣”。所谓的自由主义、科学主义、新儒家等等，都以各自的精彩和角度作出了各自的回答。这些思考尽管各有问题，但是我们分析今天中国文化问题的重要资源。

总之，中国文化历经几千年为绵延不息，任何对中国文化问题的思考与解答，都必须建立在对中国文化历史的梳理之上，都必须根植于中国历史和社会的土壤，都必须明白中国文化思考了什么，面临的是什么，未来是什么，问题是什么，解答的思路是什么。任何一个民族，没有文化的根基和时代的格局，都不可能拥有未来。因此，在历史的坐标面前，我们在思考中国文化的问题时，应该清楚中国文化与时代潮流的关系，还要进一步思考中国文化可以为人类文明的进步作出什么样的贡献。

To the understanding of any people culture, should build be opposite of its history comb over, specific to Chinese culture, the course that we should develop to Chinese thought culture above all has an overall knowledge, this is the basis that we understand Chinese culture correctly.

The angle that combs from the history gives to Chinese culture history wraparound, this is culture of our summary China the premise of main drive.

The fountainhead with Chinese inchoate culture with " The Book of Changes " for the delegate, the Confucianist also has " " easy " those who be the five classics head " view. According to account, fu Xi is in 7000 old before created " easy " . Actually, " The Book of Changes " represented the Chinese sage understanding to the universe and life. Among them, " The Book of Changes " in reflect become easy the body of spirit of thought, hardship, person and world an organic whole admits etc, produced major effect to the mind extent of later ages China.

The abdicate and hand over the crown to another person of period of the reputed founder of the Ix Dynasty of Yao and Shun, it is the concentration that heart sex and consciousness take seriously in Chinese culture is reflected actually. On the problem that how governs a country, the example that Chinese culture gives out builds what execute on the foundation of morality and awareness namely " abdicate and hand over the crown to another person " , this kind of traditional profundity affected Chinese politics and society, in the words condition of Chinese culture, when discussion politics is good, always meet the representing that regards ideal as period of the reputed founder of the Ix Dynasty of Yao and Shun. But, build the person on morality and awareness foundation to treat, having the limit with serious oneself, to this, chinese traditional politics is lacked all the time think over enoughly.

The times of border of trader week changed to produce main effect to Chinese culture development. According to " The Book of Rites " document account, chinese Shang Daifei often pays attention to ghosts and gods, the lawful sex of social general affairs comes from at intention of ghosts and gods. According to historical record, a lot of people that see trade acting problem, endeavor to offer a piece of advice king of name of the last ruler of the Shang Dynasty reputedly a tyrant change over to new ways, can be Wang Yi of name of the last ruler of the Shang Dynasty reputedly a tyrant " destiny is in I " attitude, persist one's old ways, final by replace. Below this kind of circumstance, zhou Dai is facing the problem that how explains destiny is transferred. If of destiny choice is business, so, replace business not to have lawful sex. Below this kind of circumstance, zhou Dai's ruler put forward " respect Tian Baomin " thought. Think, destiny exists really, but who does destiny choose to run a country, want to see this individual whether comprehend destiny, and the expression that comprehends destiny is benevolent rule, cherish his fellow citizen namely. This is " a high official in ancient China " on what tell " the day inspects ego civilian, the day listens ego civilian listens " . This is China the heavy revolution of thought history, from after this, chinese thought culture did not move toward theology, move toward the attention to the person however, this with the west thought history is having major dividing line.

Arrived period of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, age and the Warring States are called on the history, central control force is changed infirmly apparently, vassal country begins occurrence disloyalty, "Ask a vessel " this word appears in this period. Although vassal country can have not replaced Zhou Wangchao, but the chaos caused by war of all sorts of lord contend for hegemony, as one falls of it may be said. Below this kind of circumstance, how to realize political stability and social unify, became face great period problem at that time. Change infirmly plus pilot of central political power, the occurrence that also is all sorts of thoughts provided better external environment, then, emerge as the times require of contention of a hundred schools of thought. With respect to its essence character, alleged contention of a hundred schools of thought, it is different ideologist nevertheless the response to society of troubled times China and open social different prescription to clammy society. The key of the Confucianist is alive, how does the attempt rebuild the central problem that harmonious worldly order ponders over all the time for the Confucianist. The regulation that Taoist school paid close attention to the universe and life backside -- the problem of the path, unscramble with respect to what the concern issue of path and person made profundity. Legalists is the reflection that to how be opposite effectively the person undertakes tubal accusing to mix drive made him. Face the troubled times of age the Warring States, military strategist in ancient China made original research to warlike question. These research, present the situation that gave Chinese culture to let a hundred flowers blossom on one hand, in the meantime, in period structure in evolving, the times that doctrine of avery kind of cleans out sand in sea changes accept in the bureau examine.

In the troubled times that contends for hegemony in the Warring States, become Qindai in order to emphasize the Legalists ideology that the desire of incentive person is main feature to unite Chinese edge tool. One benefit one fraud, after be being united when the country, the confine of Legalists thought is exposed without involuntary discharge of urine. Indeed, the punishment of Legalists and admire main to arousing the enthusiasm of people and unified China to rise effect, but, it is a Shuang Renjian to human nature is used concupiscently. The lasting stability and durable peace with any true society, need a good system not only, need popular feeling more purify, need those who want people heart to find a place for, to this, the malpractice of Legalists is exposed gradually in the process of practice. After Qin Wangchao is unified, this should well with civilian rest, through the system construction explores the framework that maintains national stability, carry Jiaohua spirit at the same time, those who implement people spirit find a place for and harmonious. Regrettablly, ruler is only the individual concupiscent override on the country, do not know cherish financial resources of the people, do not know kindheartedness the world more, be in finally Qin Chao 2 worlds advocate politics before long, the conflagration that a farmer uprises, burned the sky of whole Qin Wangchao. Historical proof, one says material gain only, do not know inspire goodness and genuine culture are mixed in popular feeling society, scarcely chairman is long.

Chinese after the world of calm down of great-great-grandfather Liu state, review the history seriously, cancelled cruel criminal lawcorporal punishment of Qin Dai, maintain rest and build up strength, give a society a time that recuperate and grows. This kind of policy of Chinese generation, review be closely bound up with what take the place of to the Qin Dynasty. Experienced the development of period of emperor of Hui Di, article, scene emperor, arrived Wu Di when, whole the national power of Chinese generation has been not former times comparing today. This moment, the politics of Chinese generation, culture, diplomacy is waited a moment, need to make adjust subsequently. Expression is in culture level, wait for the person's effort through Dong Zhongshu, the culture of the Confucianist becomes ruler to approbate the culture with praise highly eventually. What the Confucianist can make Chinese traditional society is lineal, the choice that looking on idea is ruler and at that time the effort of Confucianist intellectual, as immanent as the need of the politics at that time, society and Confucianist culture spirit is actually relevant. The edificatory of the sort of the sort of the sort of kindheartedness that the Confucianist advocates, esteem to order, be apt to to human nature and Jiaohua, have fundamental value to the long period of order and stability of hold together society, can say, the Confucianist reflection to worldly order, after the social concussion during experiencing Qinhan, got a society eventually approbate.

Chinese generation evening, the thought of the Confucianist begins become rigid, period of Chinese chapter emperor chairs " Bai Hu is watched " the conference, be opposite the government the explanation of the Confucianist is hallowed, those who make become mix exclusively legally admissive standard, this is the vigor that strangled culture actually. Add the political convulsion after Chinese end, the value of culture begins a disorder. Gubernatorial behavior, the value generation that advocates with its deviates from, below this kind of circumstance, people is impossible from the culture that self-identity ruler flaunts in the heart, this produces main effect to the society at that time. On one hand, the intellectual that gets Confucianist culture education is accepted in the depth of the heart and agree with system of the culture idea of the Confucianist and value, but the gubernatorial behavior just in reality has be contrary to the viewpoint of value of Home Yu Ru, this brought about at that time on culture be contrary to random phenomenon: A lot of intellectuals, on one hand Bohemian the human body, do more violate lay act; Get in the heart on the other hand the influence of Confucianist culture, this is agreed with to cover value in the depth of the soul. The Ruan Ji of bamboo Lin Qixian, put in this problem. The Northern and Southern Dynasties of advance of the Kingdom of Wei when, politics is involute, each nation be in harmony and, the confluence that also is all sorts of culture offerred some kind of appropriate soil. The Confucianist, Taoist school, Buddhist waits for culture, mutual agitate, illuminate and each other be in harmony, the further progress that is Chinese culture provided a basis.

Period of the Tang Dynasty of the Sui Dynasty, chinese politics is unified, on the foundation of confluence of culture of advance of the Kingdom of Wei, the situation that gives sea Na Baichuan also presents on culture, all sorts of culture spectacular. The ruler of Tang Dynasty anounces respectable manner to the Confucianist, Taoist school, Buddhist, this very good to arriving since the development of culture propulsion action. In this one period, buddhism begins the development of occurrence leap, all sorts of faction because machine set religion, extraordinary splendour confused is shown, created the situation that Buddhism prosperity develops. Be aimed at the challenge that Buddhism brings, confucianism learn to wait for a respect in system of academic frame, inheritance, also want to make oneself explanatory system, of Han Yu " Confucian orthodoxy " say, it is the child of this kind of setting.

Arrived Song Dai, chinese intellectual is after the confluence that experienced hundreds of years of culture, begin to show exuberant ingenuity, the occurrence that a Confucian school of idealist philosophy of the Song and Ming Dynasties and heart learn is very good proof. A Confucian school of idealist philosophy of the Song and Ming Dynasties is be a comprehensive expression of with Zhu Xi, the heart learns to be a delegate with Liu Jiuyuan, both looks be like have distinction, represented actually Confucianism learn and the culture picture after be in harmony of Buddhism each other. Should say, confucianism learn to develop a Confucian school of idealist philosophy of the Song and Ming Dynasties and heart to learn level, appear give a new peak, no matter be academic system, still be the deepness that think, it is the change of milepost type.

As Chinese tradition social dusk comes, have clear generation, chinese politics trend is conservative, chinese culture also lost vibrant energy gradually, begin to appear gradually trend become rigid and trifling, the inscriptions, textual research characteristic that became clear acting culture. Besides wearing the ideologist of the minority such as shake to have critically mind, more people are textual research nevertheless person part, those who lack an ideology is former achieve, critically and review spirit. And in this one period, western society had come true from which the century arrives latter-day transition, political democracy, huge stimulated the vigor of people and creativity, economically market economy, greatly the development that promoted productivity, of culture multivariate and accrete, the development that is a society also offerred a variety of soil that think over and meditate. Be in such world in old structure under, chinese country carries decadent with each passing day, the dynasty that a the setting sun issues on the west, want to experience an affliction and struggling renewal process necessarily. Before affliction, how does a nation respond to the tide with cognitive times, if why review oneself issue before affliction, decided the future that this people develops.

Change in new old era in struggling, a few intellectuals of China, already as a result of world general trend of events oppressive, also come from those who rescue Chinese in peril is dear, leading domestic nation the absolute sincerity of the world, will examine the problem that China faces with respective course setting and eye shot, the attempt offers his view with respect to the dilemma that how solves China, formed Chinese history to go up again " contention of a hundred schools of thought " . So called latitudinarian, scientific creed, new Confucian school is waited a moment, with respective wonderful made respective reply with angle. Although each have a problem these reflection, but we are analysed today the important resource of Chinese culture problem.

Anyhow, classics of Chinese culture all previous does not cease thousands of years to be continuous, any reflection to Chinese culture problem and solve, must build be opposite of Chinese culture history comb over, need fibrous root establish is mixed at Chinese history social soil, must understand what Chinese culture pondered over, what is those who be faced with, what is future, what is the problem, what is solution train of thought. Any nation, do not have the pattern of literate basis and times, have future impossibly. Accordingly, before historical coordinate, when we are pondering over the problem of Chinese culture, should understand the concern of Chinese culture and tendency of the day, ponder over Chinese culture to be able to think the progress of human civilization makes what kind of contribution further even.